Subject Area : Number of Pages : Type of Document : Spacing : Style : Academic Level : Preferred Language : Assignment Description:Complete Exercises 6, 8, and 9 in Statistics for Nursing Research: A Workbook for Evidence-Based Practice, and submit as directed by the instructor.]

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Complete Exercises 6, 8, and 9 in Statistics for Nursing Research: A Workbook for Evidence-Based Practice, and submit as directed by the instructor.]

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chapter 6

Understanding Frequencies

and Percentages

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE IN REVIEW

Frequency is the number of times a score or value for a variable occurs in a set of data.

Frequency distribution is a statistical procedure that involves listing all the possible

values or scores for a variable in a study. Frequency distributions are used to organize

study data for a detailed examination to help determine the presence of errors in coding

or computer programming ( Grove, Burns, & Gray, 2013 ). In addition, frequencies and

percentages are used to describe demographic and study variables measured at the nominal

or ordinal levels.

Percentage can be defi ned as a portion or part of the whole or a named amount in

every hundred measures. For example, a sample of 100 subjects might include 40 females

and 60 males. In this example, the whole is the sample of 100 subjects, and gender is

described as including two parts, 40 females and 60 males. A percentage is calculated

by dividing the smaller number, which would be a part of the whole, by the larger

number, which represents the whole. The result of this calculation is then multiplied

by 100%. For example, if 14 nurses out of a total of 62 are working on a given day, you

can divide 14 by 62 and multiply by 100% to calculate the percentage of nurses working

that day. Calculations: (14 ÷ 62) × 100% = 0.2258 × 100% = 22.58% = 22.6%. The answer

also might be expressed as a whole percentage, which would be 23% in this example.

A cumulative percentage distribution involves the summing of percentages from the

top of a table to the bottom. Therefore the bottom category has a cumulative percentage

of 100% (Grove, Gray, & Burns, 2015). Cumulative percentages can also be used to determine

percentile ranks, especially when discussing standardized scores. For example, if 75%

of a group scored equal to or lower than a particular examinee ’ s score, then that examinee ’ s

rank is at the 75 th percentile. When reported as a percentile rank, the percentage is often

rounded to the nearest whole number. Percentile ranks can be used to analyze ordinal

data that can be assigned to categories that can be ranked. Percentile ranks and cumulative

percentages might also be used in any frequency distribution where subjects have only one

value for a variable. For example, demographic characteristics are usually reported with the

frequency ( f ) or number ( n ) of subjects and percentage (%) of subjects for each level of a

demographic variable. Income level is presented as an example for 200 subjects:

Income Level Frequency ( f ) Percentage (%) Cumulative %

1. < $40,000 20 10% 10% 2. $40,000–$59,999 50 25% 35% 3. $60,000–$79,999 80 40% 75% 4. $80,000–$100,000 40 20% 95% 5. > $100,000 10 5% 100%

EXERCISE

6

60 EXERCISE 6 • Understanding Frequencies and Percentages

Copyright © 2017, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

In data analysis, percentage distributions can be used to compare fi ndings from different

studies that have different sample sizes, and these distributions are usually arranged in

tables in order either from greatest to least or least to greatest percentages ( Plichta &

Kelvin, 2013 ).

RESEARCH ARTICLE

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